Childrens Television Commercials: Analyzing the Representation of Fam

Childrens boob tube Commercials Analyzing the Representation of FamilyThe assignment requires nipperrens commercializeds to be studied to date how these commercials are coded to give meaning to a commission of the family. However, before this chiffonier be tackled the concept of representation must be discussed as wellhead as clarifying what exactly is meant by unfledgedsterrens commercials. The assignment is blustering to many interpretations as to what constitutes a electric razorrens commercial. A commercial aimed at nestlingren, especially young children, must have an orison to both child and elevate alike, as it is most likely the parent who bequeath be purchasing any of the items desired. There is a pivotal interplay within commercials between interchangeing the item to the child whilst also marketing the product to the parent. When identifying childrens commercials it is advisable to look beyond the most unequivocal choice of toys or fun food to all the com mercials involving the family which a child may be exposed to. Commercials are specifically placed to draw the maximum pictorial matter to the optimum audience for their product, so any commercial shown during childrens consider time must have some relevancy for a child. another(prenominal) point to be addressed is how is a child defined. In this essay, the explanation of a child from the Oxford dictionary of Current side of meat is taken in a modified form. The definition is a young human be below the age of puberty (1996, 141), but in this essay, because puberty occurs at different stages in different people, a child is taken to be of primary school age. Yet further complexity is added when personal taste is taken into account. A child of five will want real different things than a ten-year-old child, it is hard to judge wh... ...ising children, which is hence used to sell the product.BibliographyBignell, J. (1997) Media Semiotics An Introduction. Manchester University Press Manchester. Chandler, D. (2002) Semiotics the Basics. Routledge London. Goldman, R. (1998) Reading Ads Socially. Routledge London. Gunter, B. and McAleer, J. (1997) Children and Television. Routledge London. Johnston, R.J., Gregory, D., Pratt, G., and Watts, M. (2000) The Dictionary of Human Geography, fourth Edition. Oxford Blackwell Publishers. Kaufman, G. (1999) The Portrayal of Mens Family Roles in Television Commercials. WWW document http/www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m2294/1999_Sept/58469479/p1/article. jhtml?term= gender+role+advertising Spivak, G. (1988) Can the Subaltern come up to? in Nelson, C. and Grossberg, L. (eds) Marxism and the commentary of Culture. Macmillan London. Childrens Television Commercials Analyzing the Representation of FamChildrens Television Commercials Analyzing the Representation of FamilyThe assignment requires childrens commercials to be studied to find how these commercials are coded to give meaning to a representation of t he family. However, before this can be tackled the concept of representation must be discussed as well as clarifying what exactly is meant by childrens commercials. The assignment is open to many interpretations as to what constitutes a childrens commercial. A commercial aimed at children, especially young children, must have an appeal to both child and parent alike, as it is most likely the parent who will be purchasing any of the items desired. There is a crucial interplay within commercials between selling the item to the child whilst also selling the product to the parent. When identifying childrens commercials it is advisable to look beyond the most obvious choice of toys or fun food to all the commercials involving the family which a child may be exposed to. Commercials are specifically placed to gain the maximum exposure to the optimum audience for their product, so any commercial shown during childrens viewing time must have some relevance for a child. Another point to be ad dressed is how is a child defined. In this essay, the definition of a child from the Oxford Dictionary of Current English is taken in a modified form. The definition is a young human being below the age of puberty (1996, 141), but in this essay, because puberty occurs at different stages in different people, a child is taken to be of primary school age. Yet further complexity is added when personal taste is taken into account. A child of five will want very different things than a ten-year-old child, it is hard to judge wh... ...ising children, which is then used to sell the product.BibliographyBignell, J. (1997) Media Semiotics An Introduction. Manchester University Press Manchester. Chandler, D. (2002) Semiotics the Basics. Routledge London. Goldman, R. (1998) Reading Ads Socially. Routledge London. Gunter, B. and McAleer, J. (1997) Children and Television. Routledge London. Johnston, R.J., Gregory, D., Pratt, G., and Watts, M. (2000) The Dictionary of Human Geography, 4th Editio n. Oxford Blackwell Publishers. Kaufman, G. (1999) The Portrayal of Mens Family Roles in Television Commercials. WWW document http/www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m2294/1999_Sept/58469479/p1/article. jhtml?term=gender+role+advertising Spivak, G. (1988) Can the Subaltern speak? in Nelson, C. and Grossberg, L. (eds) Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Macmillan London.

Charles Dickens Great Expectations Essays -- Charles Dickens Great Ex

Charles dickens Great ExpectationsOne of Dickens most popular novels Great Expectations is a gripingsearch for identity- the narrators self-identity billet has been borninto a difficult world in the earlier years of the 19th Century. PhilipPirrip is the narrator of Great Expectations. In the book he isknown as Pip. He called himself Pip because as a juvenile child hisinfant tongue could only get across to Pip. I the first few chaptersof the book he is described as a timid, sensitive and guilt-riddenperson. His parents had died earlier, probably due to poverty. Pip isliving with his sister, who intimidates him in every form. We realisehis intimidation when he arrives late from the graveyard,I writhe the only button on my waistcoat round and round, and lookedin capacious depress at the fire. Tickler was a wax-ended piece of rafte,worn smooth out by collision with my tickled frameI see a duplicate between Dickens and Pip. Dickenss lived in anover-crowded place when he was young . His parents had no intentions ofsending him to school. He spent his days running errands and doingchores more or less the house also his younger sister died of smallpox justlike, Pips brothers and sisters. Dickens was very concerned withsocial issues like poverty. At the time when the book was written,there was a very high take of infant mortality, which was made worseby deaths among poor adults, hence the issuance of orphans.The first meeting with Magwitch is in the churchyard, where Pip islost in young absorption grappling with his familys fate. Hisstate of mind is very mentally ill when Pip is grabbed violently and theconvict threatened to cut his throat if he was to make noise. Pipimagines Magwitch as a pir... ...r. Pip felt, Es recitea looked down on himbecause he was poor and not a gentleman. Pip was asked to play, but hedidnt know how to play. Estella lived in a society where her boddid not have to work, and we read that Pip wanted to leave when he wastold to play be cause he did not understand the word play.In chapter 9, when Pip returns home his shame will not allow him totell the truth to his sister and Pumblechook so he is exaggerates. Wesee that Pip is sexual intercourse Joe about his real feelings about his trip toSatis House. Unlike the theft, which he kept secret, he eventuallyconfides to Joe because he knows Joe will keep an circularise mind and he isthe only one person he can speak to without being punished and havinga guilty conscience. What he is give away to Joe is his shame as aworking-class person and how he moldiness change in order to win Estella.

Ancher Public Trading Essay -- Business Management Memo Essays

Ancher Public craftTOBoard of DirectorsFROMLearning aggroup A consultantsDATE appalling 22, 2005SUBJECT Sarbanes-Oxley recommendationsAs consultants for Ancher Public Trading (APT), Learning Team A would like to discuss the implications of the Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) legislation. This memorandum provides a brief history of SOXs creation, explains the relationship amongst the FASB, SEC and PCAOB, describes the pros and cons of SOX, assesses the impacts of SOX, and lists ethical considerations of SOX. write up of SOX - the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 is legislation in response to the high profile monetary scandals, such as seen with Enron and WorldCom. The purpose of this act is to protect shareholders and the general commonplace from accounting errors and fraudulent business practices. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act introduced stringent new rules to protect investors by improving the accuracy and reliability of embodied disclosures made consistent to the securities laws. Sarbanes-Oxley is n ot a set of business practices and does not specify how a business should store records rather, Sarbanes-Oxley defines which records are to be stored and for how long. A.) The relationship among the FASB, SEC and PCAOBSOX is administered by the Securities and Exchange way (SEC). The SEC sets deadlines for compliance and publishes rules on requirements. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is the department to which all publicly-traded companies, effective since 2004, are required to submit one-year reports of the effectiveness of their internal accounting controls. The SEC has broad authority everywhere all aspects of the securities industry. This includes the power to register, regulate, and oversee brokerage firms, transfer agents, and clearing agencies. along with them, is the FASB.The Financial history Standards Board (FASB), is a professional standards board created by accountants to establish Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), which are the accounting standards apply by accountants in the U.S. The GAAP reporting method makes it possible for investors and restrictive authorities to accurately determine an organizations financial results.The Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) was created to oversee the activities of the auditing profession. Specifically to oversee t... ... Line56 ,Retrieved August 17, 2001. Retrieved on 8/19/2005, from http//ww.line56.com/articles.Hein, M. (2002). The Sarbanes Oxley act of 2002 effects sweeping changes to the U.S. federal securities laws. Retrieved on August 21, 2005, from www. www.gtlaw.com.Hyatt, J. (2005). Birth of the ethics industry. Business Ethics Online, The magazine of corporate responsibility. Retrieved on 8/19/2005, from www.business-ethics.com. Johnson, C. (2005). Pros and cons of accounting rules weighed Sarbanes Oxley - more audits, accountability. San Francisco Chronicle on the Web. Retrieved August 17, 2001, from gin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2005/05/05/BUGJBE3DQ71.html. Leporte, G. (2007). Chief of the routine of small business policy at the U.S. sSecurities and Exchange Commission. Retrieved on August 17th, 2005, from http//accounting.smartpros.com .Linsley, C. (2003). Auditing, risk management and a post Sarbanes-Oxley world. Review of Business.Solomon, Deborah. (March, 2005) Accounting regulation Exposes Problems But Draws Complaints About Costs. Wall Street Journal.Wallace, S. (2005). Only the ethical involve apply. The Christian Science Monitor. March 30, 2005 edition.

The Decision That Affected My Life

Sometimes there atomic number 18 decisions that can affect your whole living. It means that if you take a wrongfulness step, you will go the wrong way. There are many examples, when heap did some something and then regretted it the entire life. Now I want to promulgate my case, when the decision I made affected my life. As many youth people of my age I like music. I like personnel casualty to clubs. I go there with my friends. I have many friends and they each(prenominal) are very different. Some of them use drugs to get high. I do not know much about this because I never move drugs but I presume that some drugs they use are hard.That iniquity we went together instead of meeting in the club as usual. We came to the flat of one of my friend because his parents were out. Then this friend brought in syringes, needles, and the drugs. All my friends wanted to take drugs. Some of them would do it for the first time. They proposed me but I refused. They were assay to persuade me but I did not give in. They said I was stupid and one time would do nothing. But after I continued to refuse, they got angry with me and said I must go.And so I went. They were not my friends any more. I think I took the right decision. Moreover, I think it affected my life greatly. Just imagine what could have happened if I had not been firm enough to refuse. I would continue to use drugs and I would become a drug-addict. Perhaps I would not even visualize my college. I know that some of my former friends ended badly. Perhaps I would end so too. Now I am happy that I was wise enough to take the right decision that affected my life in the right way.

Structural Functionlism Theory

In either semi policy- make agreement are structures that pass on different attends to ensure an effective and unflustered hapning of things in that particular authoritiesal strategy. This is why this essay go forth discuss the problems confront by contrary semipolitical parties in Zambia apply the structural functionalist theory. First it entrust explain what structural functionalism is, hence it testament define structures, functions, a political companionship and an emulation fellowship hence before giving the conclusion it will discuss the problems faced by opposition parties in Zambia.Johari (2011) defines structural functionalism as a means of explaining what political structures per work on what basic functions in a political system, it is a pawn of investigation. Macions and Gerber (201014) evokes this approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a wide focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole and by this s ociety evolves like organisms. According to Johari (201173) functions deal with the consequences involving objectives as well as processes of the patterns of action, Structures refer to those arrangements within the system which perform the functions.For sheath the legal philosophy are a structure within the political system that tolerate a function of maintaining peace and golf club. In the concept of functions, triad basic questions are involved- what basic functions are discharged in any assumption system, by what instruments those functions are performed and under what conditions the performance of these functions are through,(Ibid). Merton (195751) says functions are those observed consequences which make for the adaptation or re-adjustment of a portion outn system and dysfunctions those observed consequences which lessen the adaptation or adjustment of the system.A political society is a body of men united for promoting the content interests on some particular principl es in which they are wholly agreed. It is excessively defined as a group of men professing the like political doctrine. These parties perform a lot of functions. Political parties unite, simplify and energize the political process. They render to widen the interests they represent and harmonise interests with each other. They fork over a link between the government and the people. Easton (1965) adds on political parties seek to educate, instruct and activate the electorate.That is they perform the job of political mobilisation, secularisation and recruitment. normally in a political system the government is under the juvenilerality of a political party. If a political party does non drop control of the government but have seats in the sevens then it is an opposition party which means it opposes the government. An opposition party carriers with it all the functions of a political party. Opposition parties are there to check the fine-tune running of government, in other wo rds they offer checks and balances to the government.In Zambias political system are different structures that perform different functions that affect the opposition parties. Among these is the legislative body that comprises of the president, cabinet ministers and members of parliament also known as the home(a) assembly. Its function is to make righteousnesss that turn a profit the society as a whole. When a bill is read in the field of study assembly it has to be back up by the majority of the house in order for it to become a law. Mainly the opposition reject bills that they find not suitable for the society.But of late in Zambia the president has appointed opposition members of parliament to save as cabinet ministers in government which leads to some of them being expelled from their respective political parties. This affects the opposition because a party is supposed to form a government based on its own ideology, (Ibid), therefore when the opposition members of parliame nt are brought into government they need to adopt and adapt to the legal opinion partys ideology hence disadvantaging the opposition when it comes to decision making in the national assembly.The Media is also another structure involved with the dissemination of data to the society. According to Almond and Powell (1966) a political party needs to legislate with the electorate. Every sentence opposition parties receive coverage in an article, have their face on television or their voice on radio, they simulate that they increase their chances among potential voters. In Zambia however instead of the media being ane of the means of popularity exposure for opposition parties, it tends not to give them enough time because of the media being influenced by government.Zambian Economist (accessed on 17. 12. 13) states if the press was free we would for illustration expect high degree of information compared to a government controlled media. wherefore this becomes a problem for the opp osition. The court has a function of enforcing the law and making sure the rule of law is observed. The Zambia Reports (accessed on 9. 12. 13) states UPND chairperson for Tourism and floriculture Ephraim Belemus said Acting Chief Justice Chibesakunda was compromised and her continued stay at the helm of the Judiciary had proved costly to the arbiter system of the domain.From this quotation we can tell that in Zambia the opposition political parties have been shut from making meaningful contribution to the nation. This absence of effective enfolding in the political process is a very serious bound that Zambian opposition parties face. The executive is in charge of implementing the law and is orchestrateed by the president. When a law is made in parliament it has to be approved by the chief executive officer who happens to be the president.In some cases and in a democratic nation per say the president ratifies laws that are not in favour of the opposition for example in Zambia as the electoral Institution for Sustainable Democracy in Africa (accessed on 10. 12. 13) reports in whitethorn 1996 the Zambian constitution was amended, a presidential candidate needs to be Zambian by birth this disadvantaged the opposition parties present then like UNIP and its president Dr Kenneth Kaunda is not Zambian by birth.Having discussed the problems of these structural functions on the opposition political parties, it is important that we also discuss how these problems can be improved. To start with the legislative assembly, being a law effecting body Sisson and Snowis (1975) states the involvement of the legislature in the making of the law must be considered their central and well-nigh fundamental function. In this case both the opposition and the public opinion parties need to participate effectively because the end results should not only benefit a particular party but the society as a whole.Modern or modernising societies assume that the legislative institutions ought to serve as auxiliaries in the mobilisation of public support for policies, (Ibid), as such members of parliament (MPs) including opposition MPs should be funded to develop their constituencies. The media should be free from any form of corruption or any limitation, government if anything should invest in the media so as to stand it disseminate quality information to the nation at large. Unlike The Zambian situation were the Zambian Economist (accessed on 17. 12. 13) on March 17, 2013 referred to the Zambian media as a corrupt media, the media should bebias free, it should also give the opposition parties just as much attention as it gives the ruling party to allow the opposition share their views about government proceedings and its policies to allow them penetrate to all parts of the nation. The media plays a fine-looking function in the popularisation of the parties that wish to form a government in the future. For example the Post Newspaper is seen to have played a big role in the coming into power of the Ruling Patriotic movement (PF) because it made the party popular to the nation through its publications when the PF was in opposition.The Judiciary is a mechanism for the resolution of disputes and Zambia being a democratic rural area the judiciary should be able to provide the opposition with legal support. infra the separation of powers, the judiciary does not make laws its the work of the legislature neither does it implement the law which is the work of the Executive rather it interprets the law and applies it to the facts of each case. According to Garner (1952) judge means punishment to the harm doer. The major task of the judiciary is to ensure equal justice under the law.Ball (1971) states The judges may be nominated by the head of state, this does not mean the judges work for the head of state or the president they work to ensure that there is fair justice within the society. The decision of the courts contribute the element of leg itimacy to the outputs of the government. Thus it becomes all-important(a) that the behaviour of the courts must not be obstructive or bad so that the smooth running of the organisation becomes a problem, (Ibid). thusly the judiciary needs to be as independent as possible, this would allow free participation of the opposition in the political process.The Executive as its very name indicates, the first and foremost function of the executive is to run the administration of the coarse. In accordance with Johari (2011) the maintenance of internal peace and order should be the principle function for which the government should be established. For this purpose the executive keeps the police force that acts under its command, it should maintain defence forces to serve the country against external aggressions. The executives concern should be to formulate national policies for domestic as well external purposes.All these functions of the Executive should benefit the society as well as op position political parties, for example since the police force is under its command the opposition should be provided with the police divine service when they go to hold their rallies and campaigns. In conclusion, opposition parties in Zambia are faced with many structural functional problems some of which have been named in the parole above, members of the opposition political parties are being lost to the ruling party to benefit their desire of having the overall decision making, and legislative work is rigorously dominated by the ruling party.The media is a very important whoreson of investigation in the political process in that it provides the society of the happenings somewhat if it is restricted to publish certain information by the government, society will have no means of knowing the wrongs of government making it heavy for opposition parties to provide checks and balances. The judiciary is heavily monitored by the ruling party giving no freedom to opposition parties to effectively participate in the political process. The Executive is also biased in the implementation of the law.

Which Of The Following Was The Most Important Reason For The Success Of Hitler’s Foreign Policy?

Britain and France were sympathetic to Germany because of the harshness of The Treaty of Versailles for example the Rhine subvert was to be demilitarised and land such as Posen and West Prussia were taken from Germany. For these reasons they thought that this could be relaxed as sh stimulate by the naval agreement of 1935 and their ignoring the German armys March into the Rhineland. It seemed just that German speaking people should be united and Germany regain the land that they upset.Therefore the Treaty of Versailles was an important reason because it was the root cause of everything that exceeded. It direct to the German people getting angry and voting for the extremist partys and Hitler all overture to power. If the Treaty hadnt been made then Britain and France would not have had anything to appease Germany over because there wouldnt have been a need for them to regain the land they lost as it would have still been theirs.The League of Nations had fai lead by 1938 when Hit ler went into Austria. The reaction of the much powerful countries to events in Ethiopia and Manchuria had shown that countries such as Britain and France acted in their own self-centeredness when dealing with invasions by powerful countries when they attacked smaller countries. Thus the idea of corporate security was seen as unworkable as countries were willing to use their own armies to protect smaller countries. Britain and France did not want to be involved in struggle.This meant that the reverse of the League of Nations was and important reason for the success of Hitlers international indemnity because Hitler knew hat he could get away with anything without the league on his back. He already knew that the league had permit Japan get away with invade Manchuria so Hitler believed that he could get away with what ever he precious to do so he played with this and invaded countries and broke the Treaty of Versailles. The failure of the league meant that Hitler could invade all of his countries and begin a war.Hitler knew that Britain and France feared Communist Russia more than they feared Nazi Germany. This is shown by the friendly relationships between Britain and France and Germany during the first half of the 1930s e.g. 1936 Olympics held in Britain. Therefore Britain and France were happy to see a pissed Germany as a buffer against the USSR. This was an important reason for the success of Hitlers foreign policy because France and Britain were frighten of Russia as they were communists and they didnt want them to invade them because Russia was too big and strong to defeat. Germany was strong and not communists and was in-between France, Britain and Russia and France and Britain didnt want to upset Germany.Appeasement showed Hitler that Britain and France were willing to deed over him to do anything that he wanted to do. Hitler tried something out to see what would happen so he occupied the Rhineland and rearmed it. He sent troops into the Rhi neland moreover Britain and France didnt do anything because they thought this was Germanys anyway so why not let them have it back.When Britain and France let him off of that, he thought why not try something else so he the invaded Austria. Then once again Britain and France appeased Germany.When Hitler cut that he was getting away with anything that he wanted to he took it another(prenominal) step forward until it led to war.For this reason appeasement was a the more or less important reason for the success of Hitlers foreign policy because it allowed Hitler to do what he wanted and get away with anything. If Britain and France would have not appeased Hitler then he probably wouldnt have done the things he did that made his foreign policy a success.If Britain and France would have done something then Hitler wouldnt have gone as far as he did. Hitler took it as far as he could, got back all of the land that Germany had lost and it all eventually led to war.Therefore Hitler knew that Britain and France were unlikely to act against him when he went into Austria, Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia. He was rearming all the magazine that appeasement was occurring and so becoming stronger and more willing to risk war over Poland. Therefore appeasement was an important reason for the success of Hitlers foreign policy.

The Power of Single Story

A bilge irrigate Creates a Strong Power Adichie and Kings Critiques of the Power of the Story, specially the Single Story Many stories matter to our lives and our ways of thinking. A twaddle is the single way to activate trip of our brain and then hold up the listeners turn the tarradiddle into their own idea and experience (Widrich 4). As we accredit, our lives and our cultures are composed of adult malenessy overlapping stories. When we are being told a grade, things commute dramatically. Once we stomach heard a bill, we may always switch it as our own knowledge.Then we would worry to retell this story to a nonher(prenominal)s by oral form, or turn it into a show or a movie. any age we retell a story, we like to change some flesh out into what we want or the way we regard. As a result, after the story has being retold a thousand times, the story may be changed into a variant story. If we take in all the stories we wipe out heard, then we king risk a mis mi nd adventure. Think virtually(predicate) that if our president gives a speech without any researches and beneficial from others stories, then how would pile think some him. His speech would just be a joke, and will lose credibility.Therefore, we quest to be real careful just rough the story we heard and the story we are going to tell others, especially if it is a whizz story. In some cases, the dominant story often arrives a single story, which makes the story be curious and severe. Chimamanda Adichie and Thomas King both showed us the immenseness of the story and the danger of a single story. They showed that the single story makes the differences in people stand out. In Chimamanda Adichies Tedtalk, The risk of Single Story, she begins by telling us a story about what she would think about reading a novel as a child.She would then bring through stories that were similar to the foreign stories she had read, which contained gabardine skinned children with blue eyes wh o were vigor like her. Until she found Afri shadow stories is when she realized that people like her could be in stories (Adichie). Many times, we would tactile property the same way as Adichie felt. Stories bring in a power to set us in a dangerous opinion when we are talking about countries, nationalities, religions or any human race group. If we hear or read stories about a part of the solid ground, we would tip to perceive that part of the world as the stories describe the whole orld. For example, Chimamanda Adichie articulately tells us if she had non grown up in Nigeria and if all she k innovative about Africa were from popular images, she too would think that Africa was a place of beautiful landscapes, beautiful animals, and incomprehensible people fighting senseless(prenominal) wars, dying of poverty and AIDS, uneffective to speak for themselves, and waiting to be saved by a kind, white foreigner (Adichie). However, how numerous of us hold the same definitions and i mages as Adichies story of Africa? Instead, umpteen people continue to be fed the other side of those stories.Those stories describe Arica as a continent that is full of poverty, unsoundness and the constant fighting. Thus, those stories we receive make us feel certain emotions, like pity, toward the people that live in those places. As Adichie said that stories pass on been employ to dispossess and to malign but stories can alike be utilize to empower and to humanize. Stories can break the dignity of the people, but stories can also repair that broken dignity (Adichie). A story is endow with a very story power. Adichie also warns that if we hear only a single story about another person or country, we risk a critical misunderstanding.She said that the single story becomes stereotypes, and the problem with stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but that they are incomplete. They make superstar story become the only story (Adichie). When listening a story, the invaluable le sson is that by only hearing a fraction of the truth (whether in the media, in school, or in popular culture), we are creating damaging misrepresentations. The reason is that when we show people as one thing, as only one thing, over and over once again and that is what they become (Adichie). That is the consequence of the single story about a person, place, or issue.A single story is an incomplete description and it robs people of dignity and emphasizes how different people are. On the contrary, by engaging with all the stories of a person, place, or issue, the trap of a single story can be avoided. Adichie could arrest under ones skin gestateed at the Mexican and the U. S. side of the immigration issue, so she would have equilibrize the stories and not fallen into the single story trap. Anything we have experienced, we can claim others to experience the same. By simply telling as story, the world would found ideas, thoughts and emotions into peoples mind.That is the reason w hy story is very tendinous and we all need to be careful about every story. In the Truth about Stories, novelist Thomas King explored how stories identify who we are and how we understand and interact with other people. From face-to-face experiences to creation stories, King illustrate how stories have effectd and continue to shape our societies, as well as our personal mythologies and therefore our choices in life. He begins with the story about the earth and how it floats in space on the adventure of a turtle.People was been told that the earth was on the back of a turtle and there were infinite turtles below that turtle (King 1). It is a single story for us, but it is also very powerful for us for the reason that we could neer forget this story even though it is not reality for some people, while it is a belief for others. The truth about stories is that thats all we are (King 2), no matter they are tabby tales or nonfiction. A true story shows us our true world a fairy tal e leaves us with the hope that we can prepare a better world.Kings mother, for example, was living in an era when women were not welcome in the workforce. After her husband left their family alone, she had to be megascopic and self-supporting as a man. She worked very hard among a mans world, but she was treated unfair. When she went to her supervisor for an answer on odds-on treatment, she was told that if her work was good, she would get promoted at the end of the low year. Then she waited and waited for many years, and that year never came up. However she still believed that the world as a good place where good deeds should beget good rewards (King 4) was come-at-able (King 2-4).It is the story that forced her how her life would be. It is also the story that she believed that gave her hope and heartiness to fight back the unfortunately life. The truth is that every story is endowed with power. As for Kings return, it was another different story. King never knew why his no nplus left his family, but his brother told their family the truth that his military chaplain had another family in another place. King would never forgive his father for deserting him and his family, so he told people that his father was dead.As King said, a part of him had never been able to move past these stories, a part of him would be chained to these stories as long as he lives (King 5-9). This story shows us how stories can control our lives and affect our minds. King was chained to this single story of his father and could not move from it. No matter what reasons or other stories he had been told later as to why his father left him, he would not heal his painful heart. Thomas King warns us that we have to be careful with the stories we tell, and we have to watch out for the stories that we are told. Stories are wondrous thing, and they are dangerous (King 9). Another example, King compares two creation stories one Native and one the Christian genesis story. The Native stor y is very animated and full of dialog. King described in detail how the first woman fell from the sky and created the world by cooperating with other animals. It places us right in the thick of things. The Christian creation story was just told and sterner. However, this Bible creation story has in many ways become the single story. For example, other cultures like mine, we do not think the human was created by Adam and Eve.We believe in another story about how Pangu opened with body made heaven, earth, moon and stars, and how NuWa used soil and water to create man. Most western people do not know the Native creation story and other cultures stories, thus see others as less than the Bible story (King 10-22). If we believe one story to be sacred, we must see the other as secular (King 25). We would be less likely to doubt a story that is stranger to us because new things can always attract us and make us feel curious and interested.Nonetheless, we would not believe sometimes sine the stories we learnt before have already rooted in our mind and can never be replaced. This is the power of a story and how stories create a framework for understanding the world around us. When we tell stories to others that have really helped us shape our thinking and way of life, we can have the same effect on them too. The power of stories identifies who we are and who we are going to be, no matter what cultures we have or what religion we believe. We are not born to know everything. exclusively we know is from many stories that have been told over and over again.The message of beholding a culture or people from many different points of view, or from many different stories, rings true once you spend time actually there in person. We have all experienced this, and force even be unaware of the line between what we believe to be true and what is actually authentic. As educated adults, it is sometimes difficult to get our news from various sources and perspectives. We can seek out stories on-line, speak with people from both sides and analyze issued using various sources to gain understanding of many angles that compose a subject.We all need to open our eyes and look at the whole picture not the single story, since stories can create power that push us into a dangerous situation. Works Cited Adichie, Chimamanda. The Danger of the Single Story. TED Talk, 2008. King, Thomas. The truth about Stories. Minneapolis University of Minnesota Press. 2005. Widrich, Leo. The Science of Storytelling Why verbalise a Story is the Most Powerful Way to Activate Our Brains. Communication, what storytelling does to our brains, declination 5, 2012.

Online Games Is Formative Way of Learning

financial backing beforehand(predicate) tenet and victimisation with shaping judging A question report supporting primeval scholarship and phylogenesis by dint of shaping keep an eye onment A look into paper Elizabeth Dunphy, EdD Commissioned by the National Council for political plat stemma of action and mind, NCCA NCCA 2008 24 Merrion Squ ar, capital of Ireland 2 www. ncca. ie Aistear the archeozoic puerility computer program fashion model confine polish 5 Introduction 6 member 1 popular compass Purpose of the paper sound judgment and platform The Irish mount The praxis mise en scene The legislative stage setting good IssuesTowards a comment of fictile quantifyment documentation command and maturation 8 8 8 9 9 10 11 12 12 Section 2 The temperament of primaeval go oer Characteristics of archaeozoic skill The complexity of archeozoic discipline line theoretical constructs for mind ecological linear prospects Socio- hea at that placefore perspectives surgical operationivity possible operation Childrens agency Childrens collaboration in cultivation Intersubjectivity and collaboration Children as co-constructors of experience Play as a context for fictile mind emergent approaches to estimation Performance judicial decision and authoritative surveyment Summary 13 13 13 3 14 14 14 15 15 17 17 18 18 19 21 Section 3 What to assess in proto(prenominal) decideedness The essentials of principle Dispositions A stove of cognitive abilities Emotional goodhead- be Self- theory and soci force Summary 22 22 22 23 23 24 24 Section 4 How to assess archaeozoic get a lineing A narrative approach to appraisal of acquisition in too soon babehood Learning stories A credit-foc dod approach A fully-contextualised forecast of breeding Methods for collecting nurture on tykerens schooling Observing and empathising Conversations with minorren Clinical inter run by ups Making comprehend of squirtrens acquireSustaining discipline and nurture with registeration Portfolios Summary 25 25 25 26 27 28 29 29 30 30 31 33 3 Aistear the archeozoic puerility computer programme material Section 5 estimation and the practician Professional familiarity Skills base Ethical destinations Manage competency of sagaciousness Tensions 34 34 34 35 35 36 Concluding comments 37 References 38 send back 1 Gardners discernment of man cultivation and estimate and Shepards guiding principles of sagaciousness 19 4 Aistear the primeval puerility Curriculum manikin Glossary Glossary Agency Children be progressive in their stimulate outgrowth.Some ship assholeal in which they display their agency is by taking the initiative in teaching postal services, by observing and becoming involved in ongoing events, or by initiating conversations with betimes(a)s. accredited judgment Assessing sisterren on undertakings that ar recess of their ordinary e trulyday experi ences in their too soon upbringing and c be background knowledges. Co-construction This turn overs when minorren and/or practicians construct meaning and knowledge al around the world unitedly in interaction. Collaborative ripening This is study that set outs place in social contexts and apply the resources of the surround.Formative estimate This is estimate that informs teaching and knowledge. It is hited with the short margin collection and use of examine for the guidance of scholarship. Intersubjectivity This is the mutual actualizeing achieved by people in communication. Meta-cognition This refers to what fryren presuppose somewhatwhat their sustain breeding, mentation and think and how the act of thinking well-nigh these solvees urinate a motion the ship way of life in which tykeren then go al almost advisedly study, thinking and remembering. It is a attend whereby children become awargon of their deliver arche shell accomplishes.Pedagog y of mutuality This perspective recognises that both child and adult bring beliefs and ideas to the instruction situation and that discussion and interaction ar the means by which a sh ard frame of reference is established. This results in an exchange of understandings betwixt the child and the practitioner. Pedagogical content knowledge This is a form of professional understanding which brings together content knowledge and knowledge rough command. It is based on an understanding of how silk hat to organise and present ideas and adapt them in repartee to the diverse interests and abilities of children.Performance perspicacity Assessing childrens archean training and schooling by observing, magnetic discing, and evaluating childrens execution of instrument or belong. scaffold This refers to the practice of providing guidance and backup man to children as they move from one level of competence to a nonher. It is a fiction that is utilise to bring out interactional bear for childrens efforts. The assistance offered to the child is sensitive to and contingent on the amount of turn out subscribeed. Schema These are patterns of proto(prenominal) repeatable behaviours which children let in and which lead them through a process of co-ordination, to make generalisations.Socio- heathenish theories These are a family of theories that gestate arisen from the work of Vygotsky and which capture in viridity their emphasis on the role that social and cultural circumstanceors play in childrens tuition and study. Theory of mind Children in stages acquire the understanding that other(a)(a) people terminate hold beliefs well-nigh the world that discord from what the child him/her ego believes or appears to be true. Transformation of familiarity From a socio-cultural perspective, children are figuren as developing through a process of participating in activities of their communities, and in doing so their affair changes.They become pass o ffively more expert through action in cultural practice and through social interactions that guide them in taking on refreshful roles and responsibilities. 5 Aistear the Early childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early on discipline and increase through formative appraisal Introduction This research paper, Supporting early eruditeness and ontogenesis through formative judgement responds to the questions Whats the endeavor of formative assessment in early childishness? What should we assess? How should we assess?The paper is one of four research coer commissioned by the NCCA to set out the theory trail piece of tail the Framework for Early Learning1. This paper is being used to develop guidelines on assessment for inclusion in the Framework. While there are a issuance of diametric types and functions of assessment this paper center ones on formative assessment as this offers most potential in terms of assessing to promote study in the day-by-day interactions amid adults and children in early childishness. Section 1 of the paper, General background explores the meaning of assessment and its social intercourseship with teaching and learning.Though lock up very very much an emerging playing area, what we know well-nigh how to support early learning and festering through the formative assessment process has mod somewhat in new historic period. In m every(prenominal) ship trickal the advances in assessment practices in early puerility education and care reflect those in the field of assessment generally. In particular, the articulation of the inter pertaindness between teaching, learning and assessment and the complexity of the relationships between these processes and platform is of as much vastness to those concerned with early learning and culture, as it is to those concerned with after stages of development.The term assessment, as applied in early childhood education and care, generally implies the intention to abide a rich picture of the ways in which children act, think and learn. In nightclub to orient the discussion just well-nigh assessment in early childhood education and care, the initial subsection of the paper outlines the general context in relation to the assessment of early learning and development. While a number of diverse reasons for assessing early learning and development spate be identified, this paper focuses on using formative assessment to support teaching and learning.Section 2, The genius of early learning begins from the forgo that in assessing early learning and development it is unfavourable to acknowledge and take account of the reputation of early learning and development. We know that in early childhood learning and development is rapid, episodic and holistic. It is withal extremely influenced by the extent of support that is available for that learning. The adults around the child, and the extent to which they nonify and do support early learning and deve lopment, are of the essence(p) elements in determine the extent of learning.Because of their stage of development, childrens abilities in some areas are non yet mature. Their verbal abilities are still emerging, and so assessment of learning and development is often through reflectivity of, and inference from, the childrens actions and reactions in particular situations. It is too essential to acknowledge and take account of the fact that there are considerable cultural variations in childrens experiences. These allow for result in differences in the course and content of early learning and development. They may similarly result in considerable differences in how children learn and in how they display their learning.It is grievous to focus on the breadth of childrens early learning and development. Section 3, What to assess in early learning focuses on assessing childrens dispositions, eudaimonia, cognitive abilities and ego-concept and sociability. legal opinion in early childhood is shaped by how children from birth to six years learn and develop. A narrative approach offers great potential for reservation assessment of early learning visible. Documentation of certify of early learning and development in confused ways, using a variety of media and tools, is important for both reflecting on and communicating round childrens achievements.There appears to be general agreement that assessment of early learning and development should be informal, carried out over time, and in the context of the childs interactions with materials, objects and other people. It should to a fault be authentic in the sense that it should take place in real-life contexts where it is embedded in tasks that children see as of import, meaningful and worthwhile. Informal assessments, carried out as children engage in experiences they see as relevant and meaningful, are likely to publish the best assessments of early learning and development.These issues are considered in Se ction 4, How to assess early learning. 1 The Framework for Early Learning was renamed Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework in 2009. 6 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 5, Assessment and the practitioner discusses the need for professional development for early childhood practitioners. Good assessment practice requires understanding about how children learn and develop, the process of assessment, and skills to manageably assess in ways that respect children and that are ethically sound.The concluding comments clarify and summarise the signalise messages crosswise the paper. Key focalises arising from the discussion are presented in shaded boxes throughout the paper. Some of these head ups relate to key messages arising from theory and research while others are aspirational. 7 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through for mative assessment Section 1 General background This section of the paper explores what is meant by assessment in early childhood and discusses its relationship with teaching and learning.Informed by this, a definition of formative assessment is presented. The section concludes by describing the current practice and legislative context in which assessment takes place in Ireland. Purpose of the paper The purpose of this paper is to review issues cerebrate to formative assessment of early learning. The decisions of the paper bequeath be used to support the development of the assessment guidelines in the Framework for Early Learning2. The paper responds to questions related to the what, why and how of formative assessment in early childhood. Assessment and curriculumWays of assessing childrens learning and development arsehole buoynot be isolated from features of the curriculum (for example, the degree of formality or informality that disposes it), and from views of learners and l earning which are embodied in that curriculum. Kelly (1992) identifies the interrelating of curriculum and assessment as a highly complex and sophisticated number (p. 16). He argues that the interplay of one with the other is crucial in determining the effectiveness of either. The NCCA is developing a curriculum role model for children between the ages of birth and six years.The Framework embraces a particular view of the child, of learning and of how that learning may be celebrated and passed. In the Framework for Early Learning, learning is presented in four broad and complementary themes upbeat Identity and Belonging Communicating Exploring and Thinking. Some of the principles related to how children develop and learn which underpin the Framework intromit the future(a) holistic learning and development active learning play and starting signal-hand experiences relevant and meaningful experiences communication and manner of speaking a well- fancyned and well-resou rced outdoor and indoor learning environment. It volition be important to identify an approach to assessment that will help practitioners identify and support childrens learning as it relates to the Frameworks principles and themes. Assessment and teaching are now generally considered to be as much internal processes in early childhood as they are in whatever other period of life (Shepard, Kagan and Wurtz, 1998 archer et al. , 2001). We now know that children learn by building new understandings on those that they already yield (Wood, 1998).In order to support childrens learning then, practitioners first collect learning about childrens well-being, identity and belonging, communication, and exploration and thinking. What children engage with, think, know, feel or can do are all of importance in the assessment process. blame on this information helps the practitioner to establish 2 As famed earlier, the Framework for Early Learning was renamed Aistear the Early Childhood Curri culum Framework in 2009. 8 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment ow best to advance childrens learning and development. Once this is established the practitioner is then in a position to plan worthwhile, interesting and contest learning experiences to nevertheless work out learning. Clearly then, assessment in early childhood is not something that can be considered independent of either curriculum or learning. It is life-sustaining that the assessment of early learning recognises the odd nature of development in early childhood. It is also critical that we learn from the experiences of countries with a bimestrial history of appraising assessment practices and processes than we have here in Ireland. working(a) in the context of the United States, where there has been considerable interest in determination take over assessment formats for use by early childhood practitioners, Shepard et al. (199 8, pp. 8-9) devised a set of principles to guide practice and constitution for the assessment of childrens learning. These stand for a synthesis of understandings in respect of the most catch approaches to assessment in early childhood and the authors advised that they should apply to any situation in which assessments are used to make decisions about childrens learning Assessments should bring about benefits for children. Assessments should be tailored to a specific purpose and should be reliable, valid and fair for that purpose. Assessment policies should be designed recognising that reliableness and validity of assessments increases with childrens age. Assessments should be age- clutch in both content and the regularity of data collection. Assessments should be linguistically appropriate, recognising that to some extent all assessments are measures of language. Parents should be a valued source of assessment information, as well as an audience for assessment results. The Irish context The practice context Assessment in the early years of a childs life can be viewed from a number of perspectives. David (2003) identifies three perspectives the day-to-day informal assessments make by the adults with whom the child comes in contact. In most cases these are early years practitioners who may or may not document much(prenominal)(prenominal) assessments. the physical assessments by paediatricians, public health nurses and family doctors.These aspiration to identify any physical hassles that may impede childrens improvement and seek to alleviate them as much as possible. diagnostic assessments that can have a field of functions, including identifying children with special educational necessitate, and helping practitioners to support their learning more in effect. No single type of assessment can serve all of the purposes identified in the perspectives outlined above. Each perspective has a role to play, especially in the case of children with speci al require where diagnostic assessments are of paramount importance.Babies, toddlers and preadolescent children may experience various types of assessments in early childhood. Some may occur frequently, others occasionally. Multi-agency and multi-disciplinary communication is a critical means by which information related to the childs development and learning can be shared for the benefit of the child. It is compulsive that practitioners in early childhood settings have glide path to any information that is of use in making sure learning opportunities in the setting are appropriate for each somebody child.The practice of practitioners building on assessments carried out by other professionals such(prenominal)(prenominal) as therapists can be facilitated by significant levels of inter- and/or multidisciplinary teamwork. 9 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Where children spend some or all of the ir day in out-of-home settings the practitioners with whom they are in contact engage in ongoing assessment for supporting learning and development.Traditionally, observation is the primary method used in assessing childrens learning and development in the range of early education settings in Ireland. For instance, close observations of childrens play in a range of childcare services in Ireland provide the basis for learning and teaching stories (Brennan, 2004). Many practitioners use checklists to record aspects of their observations. These are often used to record observations in relation to the assessment of childrens skills and understandings, curiously in the area of identifying children with special educational needs and in supporting their learning and development.In relation to their use of assessment practices to support childrens learning in curriculum areas, only about half of infant teachers who inscribed in Phase 1 of the Primary Curriculum Review (NCCA, 2005) reporte d that they used observation and about three-quarters reported using documentation. Infant teachers in primary inculcates also use a range of developmental and diagnostic assessments, for example, in the area of early literacy, to assess specific aspects of childrens development and learning. (See Section 4 for a more extensive discussion on observation as an assessment method. )Increasingly there is an awareness that children live different childhoods their social, cultural, linguistic and ecological experiences and opportunities differ and all of this influences assessment. Practitioners who are in daily contact with children are in a good position to familiarise themselves with these diverse aspects of childrens lives and of their possibilities for early learning and development. Consequently, on a day-to-day basis, the practitioners take assessments are the ones that have the most potential in terms of planning for childrens learning and of making judgements regarding childre ns progress.Using assessment for this purpose is the substitution focus of this paper. Key geological period A range of assessments are appropriate in assessing childrens learning. The focus of the assessment depends on its purpose. The exchange focus of this paper is on formative assessment where practitioners own assessments are used to support and plan for childrens learning. The legislative context There is a long history of informal assessment of childrens learning in Ireland. However, for various reasons early childhood practitioners now find it necessary to document learning in ways that were not general practice previously.Both legislative requirements and practitioners own desires to better understand early learning and how best to break down it, are to the fore in encouraging the documentation of information related to childrens early learning and development. In relation to young children attention primary schools, The Education Act (Department of Education and Scien ce, 1998) requires principals and teachers to regularly evaluate students and periodically report the results of the evaluation to the students and their parents. The implications of this requirement for teachers and schools embroil developing assessment procedures which provide an accurate account of childrens progress and achievement creating and maintaining records of childrens progress and achievement while they are go to the school providing parents with assessment reports which cop accurate and clear accessible information about their childrens progress and achievement (NCCA, 2007a, p. 95). The Equal Status Act (The Equality Authority, 2000) has implications for the assessment policy in early education settings.In particular, it requires settings to be aware of the effects of context, civilisation and language in assessing childrens learning and development. 10 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment The Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs Act (EPSEN) (Department of health and Children, 2004) requires that where a child has or may have special educational needs an assessment of those needs should be carried out. With children not attending formal schooling this is the responsibility of the relevant health board.Where the child is a student then the Act requires schools to identify when a child is not benefiting from the education programme on offer and to investigate the reasons behind this. The school, or in the case of a child not at school the relevant health board, is mandated to ensure that an one-on-one education plan (IEP) for an appropriate education for the child is drawn up in consultation with the childs parents. The Act outlines the statutory requirements for educational planning for children with special educational needs (SEN).It requires that a multi-disciplinary assessment be carried out in situations where it is considered that the child may have special educational needs. An IEP must then be prepared for each child identified as having such needs. news and agreement regarding the abilities, skills and talents as well as the nature and degree of the childs special educational needs, together with an abstract of how these needs affect the childs learning and development is required. The plan must include these and must also specify goals for learning and development for the child over a period not exceeding ne year. It must also specify the supports that need to be put in place to alter the child to participate in and benefit from education. The Disability Act (Department of Health and Children, 2005) enables provision for the assessment of health and education needs for persons with disabilities, arising from their situation. The Act provides for access for people with disabilities to health and education services. In relation to educational needs, position 2 Section 8 (9) states that where an assessment i s applied for it must be carried out by or at the request of an assessment military officer who then identifies the need for the provision of an educational service to the child, he or she shall, in case the child is enrolled in a school, refer the affair to the principal of that schoolin any other case, refer the matter to the council for the purposes of an assessment. The Child Care (Pre-School Services) (No 2) Regulations (Department of Health and Children, 2006) set out the regulations and requirements pertaining to all aspects of the operation of pre-school settings. Regulation 5 explicitly requires thatA person carrying on a pre-school service shall ensure that each childs learning, development and well-being is facilitated at bottom the daily life of the service through the provision of the appropriate opportunities, experiences, activities, interaction, materials and equipment, having regard to the age and state of development of the child and the childs cultural context. To fulfil this requirement it is necessary for practitioners to engage in making important judgements about childrens learning and development and how best to extend and enrich it. By implication this involves the practitioner in assessing learning and development.Indeed, the instructive guide directs practitioners to be pro-active in ensuring that appropriate action is taken to talking to each childs individual needs with his/her parents and following consultation, where appropriate, with other relevant services (p. 39). While there are other pieces of order which impact on aspects of assessment such as the transfer of assessment information between settings, the focus of this paper is on the actual process of using assessment to support early learning and development. How best to stick with with the above demands in ways that are respectful to hildren capture the complexity of early learning and are helpful in planning futurity learning experiences has now become a key issue for consideration for early childhood practitioners. Key check Assessment takes place within a particular legislative framework in Ireland. Ethical Issues The nature of the power relations between babies, toddlers and young children and the practitioners with whom they come into contact needs to be acknowledged in the assessment situation. The power of the adult and the congress dependency of children make it imperative that ethical issues are given serious-minded consideration by practitioners.Some of these issues are discussed later in Section 5. 11 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Towards a definition of formative assessment Bowman, Donovan and Burns (2001) suggest that the term assessment, as applied in early childhood education and care, generally implies the intention to provide a rich picture of the ways in which children act, think and learn. Such a picture focuses on the individuals l earning, is built up over time and provides establish of learning in a number of different contexts.In relation to its importance, they argue that Assessment has an important role to play in revealing a childs prior knowledge, development of concepts and ways of interacting with and understanding the world so that teachers can choose a pedagogic approach and curricular materials that will support the childs further learning and development. (p. 259) Pelligrini (1998) refers assessment in early childhood as being about the collection of information about children. This is generally understood to overlay a number of other processes besides collecting. For example, Lally nd Hurst (1992) describe how assessment also involves practitioners in documenting, analysing and reflecting on the information collected, and using this to plan and support further learning. This definition is very corresponding to that used in Assessment in the Primary School Curriculum Guidelines for Schools (N CCA, 2007a). While interchangeable methods may be utilitarian in both early childhood settings and in primary school settings, in early childhood assessment particular account needs to be taken of the characteristics of babies, toddlers and young children and to the unique ways in which these children learn.Early childhood assessment focuses specifically on finding out what children are interested in, understand, think, feel, and are able to do. It seeks to document this information in order to understand childrens thinking and learning styles, to graph childrens progress and to support further learning. It is developmental in that it focuses on processes alternatively than on content or product. Key point Assessment of early learning provides a rich picture of childrens learning by collecting and documenting information. Through reflecting on and using this information, childrens hereafter learning is supported and enhanced.Supporting learning and development Assessment in early childhood has been identified as having a number of functions ipsative, diagnostic, summative, evaluative and informatory (Wood and Attfield, 2005). Assessment in early childhood has enormous potential to support learning and development. A new-fashioned large-scale longitudinal study of early learning settings in England confirmed the importance of assessment in coming together childrens needs and in supporting their cognitive progress (Siraj-Blatchford, Sylva, Muttock, Gilden and Bell, 2002).The final purpose of assessment in early childhood is to make learning more interesting, enjoyable and successful for children. Drummond (1993) suggests that assessment must work for children We can use our assessments to shape and enrich our curriculum, our interactions, our provision as a consentaneous we can use our assessments as a way of identifying what children will be able to learn next, so that we can support and extend that learning. Assessment is part of our daily practice in striving for quality. (p. 13) Key pointAssessment in early childhood promotes the extension and enrichment of childrens early learning and development. The following section looks at the nature of early learning and the implications for assessing early learning. 12 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 2 The nature of early learning This section of the paper discusses the characteristics of early learning and identifies some key theoretical constructs that guide the teaching, learning and assessment processes during early childhood.Theoretical considerations have been influential in shaping new and emerging approaches to assessment and the most salient of these are discussed in relation to their implications for the assessment of early learning and development. Characteristics of early learning During the early childhood period childrens learning across the various dimensions of development (f or example, physical, motor, linguistic, emotional) is great than at any other period, scarce is also highly variable across the dimensions.It also occurs very rapidly, is episodic in nature and is very susceptible to environmental conditions (Shepard et al. , 1998). These factors return to making the assessment of early learning and development very challenging. The complexity of early learning We have a great deal of evidence that early learning and development is both extensive and complex (e. g. Drummond, 1993 Bowman et al. , 2001 Carr, 2002). The research paper, Childrens early learning and development (French, 2007) provides information on many facets of early learning and development.Early childhood educators have consistently sought-after(a) to convey the extent of this complexity and over the years they have provided evidence of exactly how much learning children can demonstrate, provided that it is approached in appropriate ways. For instance, Donaldson (1983) clearly d emonstrates how children display different levels of proficiency/learning in different contexts. In her seminal work, Childrens Minds, she reviewed research that illustrated the dramatic effect of the inclusion or omission of a single adjective in questioning children on so-called logical tasks.She argues (p. 59) that the young child first makes sense of situations (and mayhap especially those involving mane intentions) and then uses this kind of understanding to help him make sense of what is said to him. Looking not at what children say but at what they do, the work of Athey (1990) and that of Nutbrown (1999) clearly demonstrates how, as children pursue accepted schema for considerable periods of time, these can be identified and supported by practitioners. Early learning is seen, for instance in Atheys work, to have its own recognisable and valid characteristics.Nutbrown (1999) draws out the implication of that work for the assessment of childrens pathways and patterns of dev elopment and interest. This work along with that of Drummond (1993) exemplifies vividly how much of childrens learning there is to see if practitioners are open to seeing it by flavour beyond what children can tell us and instead observing what they very can do. Play provides an important vehicle and context for this work. Key point During the early childhood period, childrens learning is highly complex and is made visible through assessing carefully and thoughtfully.Key theoretical constructs for assessment Dahlberg, Moss and Pence (1999) observe that in recent years, especially in Western Europe, there has been a process of rethinking childhood that has led to new constructions of the child. They locate this process in a number of interrelated developments with respect to learning theories philosophy psychology sociology and a concurrent questioning of previous understandings in these fields. From this post-modern perspective, the young child is seen, from the counterbalance of life, as a construction of his or her own world.This is very similar to the perspective adopted by Malaguzzi (1993), the founder of the world-renowned Reggio genus Emilia pre-schools in Italy. Dahlberg et al. (1999) describe how in Reggio Emilia pre-schools, the young child is understood as a unique, complex individual who is rich in the sense that he or she is equipped from the start to engage fully and actively in their world. A wider discussion of these perspectives follows. 13 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessmentEcological perspectives Ecological and socio-cultural theories of learning have largely dominated explanations of development and learning in early childhood in recent years. For instance, ecological (Bronfenbrenner 1979) and bioecological (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 1998) models of human development have been influential in efforts to understand learning and development and associated pr ocesses such as assessment. These models emphasise the role in human development of both the environment and of processes.The research paper, Perspectives on the relationship between education and care (Hayes, 2007) in turn cozy ups both the importance of care and education in facilitating childrens overall development. From this perspective, human development is seen as taking place as a result of progressively more complex multiplicative inverse interactions (p. 996) between the young child and the people, objects and symbols in the environment. To be effective the interactions must occur on a fairly regular basis over extend periods of time (p. 996).These enduring forms of interaction (proximal processes) are seen as key to learning and development and we must study these interactions over time and alongside the observation of behaviour in natural settings. From an ecologicaltheory perspective, Bronfenbrenner (1979) describes how the learner can participate in increasingly mor e complex learning situations and in doing so take increasingly greater responsibility in the learning situation. The perspective also emphasises the agency or active nature of children in their interactions with adults, objects and symbols.The model can be used to draw attention to the interpersonal and situational aspects of assessment, for example the importance of the personal characteristics of the child and the adult in the assessment context, the importance of reciprocal interactions between child and adult and the importance of assessing childrens level of engagement with the objects and symbols provided in the immediate environment. Thus the ecological approach emphasises assessment of children busy in real tasks in natural settings.This perspective sits very well with the socio-cultural perspective that we look at next. Socio-cultural perspectives In the past twain decades socio-cultural perspectives, that is perspectives that highlight the social and cultural nature of learning, are increasingly used to justify the ways that learning and development occur in early childhood (Anning, Cullen and Fleer, 2004). Socio-cultural theories of learning suggest that the process of learning is as much a social construction as it is an individual one. Rogoff (1998, p. 91) describes development as chemise of participation. Transformation occurs at a number of levels for instance, the learner changes at the level of their involvement, in the role they play in the learning situation, in the ability they demonstrate in moving flexibly from one learning context to another, and in the amount of responsibility taken in the situation. Activity theory also concentrates on the social aspects of learning. Activity theory Activity theory, which is a development of aspects of Vygotskys work (See for example, Engerstrom et al. 1999), is also being highlighted as a theoretical framework that may be useful in explaining the complexity of learningrelated issues in early chil dhood. Fleer, Anning and Cullen (2004) explain how use theory, in common with Rogoffs discussion of socio-cultural theory, focuses on the study of the complexity of human behaviour in social groups and in specific contexts. The theory is premised on the impression that the contextual features of a task transmit to performance on that task (p. 178).Furthermore, children use tools such as language, a particular action or resource to mediate knowledge in interactions with others. But the cultural features of the context in which they use these tools influences the way activities are performed and understood. Key point If socio-cultural theory informs our understanding of how children learn, it also by implication informs our understanding of assessment. 14 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessmentWhat all of these perspectives hold in common is their emphasis on the socially constructed nature of learning and of assessment. There are a number of other important constructs that also unite them to greater or lesser degrees. These include childrens agency, the importance of collaboration, and the co-construction of meaning and knowledge. These constructs are particularly helpful when thinking about the quality of the interactions between practitioners and young learners. Quality interactions are increasingly recognised as central to pedagogy (Black and Wiliam 1998a Siraj-Blatchford et al. , 2002).The next sub-section discusses these ideas in some detail, and in doing so, draws out the implications for assessment practices in early childhood. Childrens agency Bruner (1999a) argues that advances in the study of human development provide us with a profile of the child as an active, lettered being with knowledge as man-made rather than simply there with ways to negotiate with others in the construction of knowledge. (See French (2007) for more small information. ) A crucial aspect of ide ntity and self-esteem is that the child sees him/her self as an agent in control of his/her own actions.Some ways in which children display their agency is by taking the initiative in learning situations, by observing and becoming involved in ongoing events, or by initiating conversations with others. Agency is about taking more control of your own mental activity (Bruner, 1996, p. 87). Bruner argues that the agentive mind is not only active in nature but it seeks out dialogue and discourse with other active minds (p. 93). Bruner (1999a) identifies efforts to recognise childrens perspectives in the processes of learning as highly significant and he uses the term pedagogy of mutuality (p. 3) to describe the pedagogy that arises from such endeavours. It is premised on the belief that children are able to reason to make sense (both alone and in discourse with others) to reflect and to hold theories about self and about the world. The practitioner, according to Bruner (p. 12) is concern ed with understanding what the child thinks and how he/she arrives at what he/she believes. He identifies four key research constructs which have enriched this perspective on teaching and learning (and by implication assessment) Intersubjectivity how the child develops the ability to read other minds Theory of mind the childs acquire of anothers intentional state Meta-cognition what the child thinks about learning, remembering thinking Collaborative learning how children, through talk and discussion, explain and revision their thinking. These theoretical ideas are important also in the analysis of assessment as it relates to early learning and development. Childrens collaboration in learning is also important and this is considered below. Key pointThe active role which children themselves play in their interactions with others needs to be recognised and taken into account in any assessment of learning. Childrens collaboration in learning Zone of proximal development Vygotsk ys theory of learning (1978 1986) has been highly influential in helping to explain the processes of learning in early childhood. In particular, his notion of the zone of proximal development has provided the foundation and potential for some of the most important recent initiatives in the assessment of individual childrens learning (Lunt, 2000).Berk and Winsler (1995) describe Vygotskys zone of proximal development (ZPD) as a dynamic zone of sensitivity in which learning and cognitive development occur. Tasks that children cannot do individually but they can do with help from others raise mental functioning that are currently in the process of developing, rather than those that have already matured (p. 26). It appears that Vygotsky originally introduced the ZPD in the context of lean against intelligence testing which he felt was desire to assess something passive and did not reflect the dynamic and ever-changing 5 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting ear ly learning and development through formative assessment nature of human cognition. Adult-child collaboration within the ZPD is critical for effective teaching and learning interactions because it is within such interactions that the practitioner identifies how the child may be assisted in learning and what the child is exposed of doing with appropriate support. The practitioner also has the opportunity to assess the impact of such support on the childs progress.This approach to assessment effectively merges the teaching and assessment processes. It is commonly referred to as dynamic assessment. When Feuerstein (1979) first proposed this form of assessment he was envisioning, in essence, a joint problem-solving situation during which the practitioner gauges the nature and extent of assistance required by the child in order to solve the problem. Childrens responsiveness to appropriate instructional interactions is a key factor in dynamic assessment situations and it is now considere d to be an important predictor of learning potential (Berk and Winsler, 1995).Lidz (1991) emphasises that The focus of dynamic assessment is on the assessors ability to discover the means of facilitating the learning of the child, not on the childs demonstration of ability to the assessor (as cited in Berk and Winsler, 1995, p. 139). Dynamic assessment is considered by Berk and Winsler (ibid. ) as especially useful for making visible the learning potential of those children whose early experiences do not include experiences that prepare them for learning in group/institutional settings. (For a comprehensive discussion of dynamic assessment and emerging approaches to such assessment, see Lunt, 2000).The concept of hold up is often associated with ZPD and it is this which we turn our attention to next. Key point Practitioners interactions with children often incorporate both teaching and assessment. It is critical that the practitioner is capable of prosecute certain interactive sk ills in such situations since these will be necessary to ensure optimal learning and development. Scaffolding Effective scaffolding (Wood, Bruner and Ross, 1976), where the adult guides the childs learning in the ZPD, is an important feature of the engagement of the child in joint problem solving.Here, the child interacts with the practitioner while the two are jointly toilsome to reach a goal and this results in the boldness of intersubjectivity (Newson and Newson, 1975). Intersubjectivity refers to the process whereby two participants achieve a shared understanding whilst undertaking a task that they approach from different perspectives. The parties co-construct meanings in activities that involve higherorder thinking (Vygotsky, 1978). Rogoff (1998) emphasises the ongoing mutual process of understanding, which is inherent in joint problemsolving interactions.She also draws attention to the institutional and cultural aspects of joint problemsolving activities. She distinguishes b etween her socio-cultural approach to studying experts support of critics learning and other approaches which focus on particular techniques such as scaffolding. Rogoff distinguishes between the concepts of scaffolding and of working in the zone of proximal development. She describes scaffolding as a specific technique focusing on what experts provide for novices it focuses on the tutors efforts as they relate contingently to the novices successes and failures (p. 699).However, working in the zone of proximal development is, in her view, wider than scaffolding. It focuses on the processes of communication that builds a continually evolving mutual perspective. It is a way of describing an activity in which someone with greater expertise assists someone else to participate in socio-cultural activities in a way that exceeds what they could do otherwise (p. 699). common contribution is an essential consideration so interactions and communicative and collaborative processes all form part of the picture, rather than just the childs successes or errors as in scaffolding.Rogoff argues that The concept of scaffolding does not refer to the institutional and cultural context in which it occurs, whereas the concept of zone of proximal development requires attention to processes of communication and the relation of the interaction at hand to institutional, cultural and historic processes. (p. 700) 16 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Key point Supporting childrens learning is an important part of assessment. For the practitioner this is often far more complex than simply applying a technique such as scaffolding.Learners make an equally important contribution. Intersubjectivity and collaboration are important in scaffolding childrens learning and we look at these two concepts below. Intersubjectivity and collaboration Rogoff (1990 1998) has illustrated how children make an important co ntribution in collaborating in the process of establishing joint understanding. Children, including infants in the first year of life, can sometimes be observed to be deliberately taking the lead in collaborative activities by seeking information or by tell activities.Rogoffs analysis, consistent with Vygotsky, suggests that the intersubjectivity as achieved by adults and babies is different from that achieved by adults and children who can use linguistic (verbal and gestural) communication to achieve mutual understandings. This then has implications for the assessment process across the age range birth to six years. Working in the zone of proximal development with a toddler will include the adult engaging in the demonstration of objects, collaborative activity with objects and the focusing of the childs attention.Rogoff (1998) points out that the child, for example in seeking to help the adult in everyday chores, very often initiates such activity. Older toddlers and young childre n will often seek to assert their emancipation in doing a particular task themselves but Rogoffs analysis of the research suggests that they also will actively seek assistance when they are stuck. Recently a question has arisen about the capacity of early years settings to support the kinds of relationships and shared experiences that enable children to engage in the types of social participation that promote optimum learning (Parker-Rees, 2007).The research indicates that the nature and scope of babies, toddlers and childrens interactions with parents, the playful quality of these interactions and the extent to which relationships can influence reciprocal onomatopoetic behaviour (an important process of learning especially in the first year) must all be fully appreciated by practitioners and be seen as desirable conditions for learning in the setting. Key point The concept of collaboration is key when considering assessment from a socio-cultural perspective.In collaborating, the child and the practitioner are involved in each others thinking processes through shared efforts. In order to assess certain aspects of learning by babies, toddlers and young children, it is essential for adults to collaborate with the children in order to understand their learning. The co-construction of knowledge is supported by intersubjectivity and collaboration and it is to this that we next draw our attention. Children as co-constructors of knowledgeIn recent times the term co-construction has featured prominently in influential early childhood publications, although it was implicit in the last century in the work of Dewey (1933) who emphasised the ways in which children construct their learning by actively engaging in, and shaping, their experiences and environments. For instance, Jordan (2004) discusses the term scaffolding and compares it with coconstruction. The specific pattern of interaction that characterised early accounts of scaffolding, according to Jordan (ibid. and Rogoff (1998), generally maintained the power and control with the adult. They argue that the term co-construction emphasises the child as a powerful player in his/her own learning. An example of how this process of co-construction works in practice is illustrated in the discussions of the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education (Edwards, Gandini and Forman, 1998). Co-construction refers to adults and children making meaning and knowledge together (MacNaughton and Williams, 2004).Co-construction recognises the childs expertise and in order to understand this, the practitioner needs to interact with the child and become aware of the childs thoughts and thereby to establish intersubjectivity. 17 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Recent research (Siraj-Blatchford et al. , 2002) also highlighted the process of co-construction and found it to be a key factor in terms of promoting childrens learning.Essentially a co-construction perspective emphasises understanding and meaning on the part of both child and adult, rather than the acquisition of facts by the child. Jordan (2004) concludes that the two concepts, scaffolding and co-construction have different applicability depending on whether the goal of the practitioner is the exploration of thinking or the achievement of pre-specified learning goals. Key point Co-construction of meaning and knowledge is central to teaching, learning and assessment and it occurs when both child and practitioner engage together in achieving mutual understanding.Play as a context for formative assessment As this paper demonstrates, childrens learning is complex and assessment approaches need to take awareness of this. In early childhood, this complexity is abundantly unvarnished as children engage in play. The importance of play to young childrens learning and development is a key principle for early childhood practitioners (Wood, 2004). Assessing childrens understandings and progress as they play, either alone or with others, is a crucial activity in early years settings. In assessing the childs learning through play the adult can use a range of approaches and methods.Practitioners make assessments by focusing on childrens play interests, their levels of engagement and participation. They make assessments while skilfully engaging with children in play. Skilful engagement includes intervention in play as and when appropriate. Such interventions may serve to initiate or sustain interactions, thereby leading to shared talking and thinking. They may also involve scaffolding children in order to enable them to reach their potential at a particular time. (See the research paper, Play as a context for early learning and development (Kernan, 2007) for detailed information on play. Childrens learning is a complex matter and assessment approaches need to take cognisance of this. The paper now looks at emerging approaches to assessment, all of which take account of play as a vehicle for learning and development. Key point Assessing childrens understandings and progress as they play, either alone or with others, is a crucial activity in early years settings. acclivitous approaches to assessment The rationale for using assessment to enrich and extend childrens learning can be located in recent developments in societys understandings of learning in the early years.For instance, in recent decades there have been very big changes in our understandings of human nature and of learning. Gardner (1999, p. 91) reviews what he describes as several lines of evidence from the cognitive, neural, and developmental sciences which point to a far more capacious view of the human mind and of human learning than that which informed earlier conceptions. He presents a picture of assessment that builds on the newly emerging picture of human development (see Table 1). Gardners principles complement the earlier principles pre sented by Shepard et al. 1998). (See pages 16-17. ) 18 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Table 1 Gardners understanding of human development and assessment and Shepards guiding principles of assessment Features of human development Features of assessment In understanding human development, there is Assessment should be simple, natural and occurring on a reliable schedule evidence for the cosmos of multiple faculties or intelligences have ecological validity (be done in situations hat are real) recognition of vast individual differences the desirability of assessing learning in context utilise instruments that are intelligence-fair and not dependent on language or logical faculties locating competence and skill extraneous the head of the individual. use multiple measures be sensitive to individual differences, developmental levels and forms of expertise use materials which are intrinsical ly interesting and move yield information to be used for the learners benefit. a necessity for a developmental perspective n emergence of a symbol-system perspective Performance and authentic assessment incorporate some of Gardners ideas and a discussion of these follows below. Performance assessment and authentic assessment Emerging approaches to assessment take account of developments in theories about learning and about human development. Performance assessment is currently seen as an approach that is particularly appropriate for assessing many aspects of early learning and development (see Bowman et al. , 2001). Meisels (1999) describes performance assessment as assessments that are ounded on the notion that learning and development can only be assessed over time and in interactions with materials, objects and other people. In this approach to assessment, the expectation is that tasks must be practical, realistic and challenging for children (Torrance, 2001). Performance as sessment implies observation of children as they undertake a number of routine tasks in early learning settings. According to Meisels (1999, p. 58) these should meet a number of criteria tasks should bring together various skills that children display and demonstrate during the course of interactions children should be assisted to perform to the very best of their ability tasks should be guided by developmental standards tasks should engage children in reflection about their work and in articulating their ideas about their learning. Authentic assessment is a type of performance assessment. It is described as harmonious with the prevailing philosophy that emphasises substantial child development (Puckett and Black 2000, p. 6). This philosophy explains development across a range of domains (for example social, moral, emotional, language and cognitive).It also recognises the diversity of early learning and the role of environmental factors in shaping that learning. From an authen tic assessment perspective, curriculum and assessment are interwoven and emphasise relevant and meaningful experiences. Assessment focuses on what children do, and on how they do it in the context of meaningful tasks. Authentic assessment has a number of identifiable features (Puckett and Black, 2000, p. 7), including the following 19 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment an emphasis on emerging development a focus on the young childs individual strengths and weaknesses is based on principles of child growth and development emanates from logical, meaningful, relevant and relevant curricula is performance based recognises different intelligence and learning styles is reflective and analytic is ongoing and occurs in many contexts is collaborative with learners, parents and others involved in childrens learning is interwoven with teaching. Key point Authentic assessment is compatible with a wh ole child perspective on learning and development. 20 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum FrameworkSupporting early learning and development through formative assessment Summary Where the purpose of assessment is to promote further learning, assessment becomes a particular type of teaching strategy. (See Marshall and Drummond, 2006). Assessment from a socio-cultural perspective takes account of the key learning processes as resolute by socio-cultural theory. In particular, collaboration and the importance in that process of the establishment of mutual understanding (intersubjectivity) need to be emphasised, as do ideas about childrens agency and those related to the co-construction of knowledge and understanding.An understanding of the different processes that contribute to childrens learning, and the types of interactions that promote it are key to understanding how such learning can best be assessed. The recognition of these processes at work is also central in conceptualising assessment approaches that take account of and display the key role of children themselves in the assessment process. Authentic assessment reflects new understandings about learning and about human development, and recognises the holistic, contextualised and dynamic nature of learning in early childhood.Having discussed the interconnection between how children learn and approaches to assessment, the next section looks at what to assess in childrens early learning and development. 21 Aistear the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 3 What to assess in early learning This section of the paper identifies aspects of learning that are of concern in assessing childrens early learning and development. The challenges of assessing a wide range of learning and development in a balanced way are discussed.The essentials of learning Skills and knowledge are important in respect of early learning. However, increasingl y there are calls for a wider view of what it is that children are learning in the years from birth to six, and for explicitness about other areas of childrens development that are now recognised as critical for long term success. For instance, Bertram and Pascal (2002) identify social competence, emotional well-being and dispositions to learn as core constituent elements of the effective learner.In relation to each of these areas they identify elements that characterise the effective learner. Indicators related to disposition include independence, creativity, self-motivation and resilience. Those related to emotional literacy include empowerment, connectedness, and positive self-esteem. Those related to social competence inco